African and Comparative Archaeology: Research

Key words: archaeological figurines, farming communities, fertility, Zimbabwe, Shona

Pikirayi, I. The Archaeological Identity of the Mutapa State: towards an historical archaeology of northern Zimbabwe

Doctoral thesis, Department of Archaeology, Uppsala University 1994

ABSTRACT

This thesis examines the archaeological evidence of the Mutapa state first established on the northern edge of the Zimbabwe plateau before the state moved to the Zambezi valley further north. Emphasis is placed on the historical period from the late 15th century to the present.

The main focus is the area to the east of Mt Fura, about 170 km north-north east of Harare. This area is known once to have been the seat of the Mutapa state. Field survey and excavated data are combined with selected documentary evidence to account for the range and variability of archaeological sites dating to the historical period. The development and decline of the Mutapa state is discussed in the context of current theoretical trends in socio-political complexity and collapse of societies.

The Great Zimbabwe tradition settlements continued to exist in northern Zimbabwe during the historical period. These sites, as has been suggested by earlier investigators, are synonymous with the historical Mutapa state. The disappearance of these sites from the plateau area coincides with the building of loopholed stone structures on hilltops and unwalled related sites with similar material culture. These sites provide archaeological evidence for the near collapse of socio-cultural complexity long established in the area.

The emergence of loopholed stone structures and related unwalled sites with hilltop locations is a result of developments in the Zambezi valley associated with Portuguese settlement in the area, and the system of land exploitation synonymous with the prazo system. The resulting ripple influenced population dispersal in adjacent regions, including northern Zimbabwe. In addition, the Portuguese conquest of the Mutapa state during the 17th century created conditions of insecurity often resulting in the depopulation of large areas and the siting of settlements on hilltops.

The characterisation therefore of the period in Zimbabwean history from the 16th to the 19th century as `Refuge' represents a misunderstanding of the complex set of events involved, and a detailed archaeological examination of other regions not covered by this work is strongly encouraged to obtain a clear picture of the recent periods.

Key words: Mutapa state, Mt Fura, historical archaeology, Gt Zimbabwe Tradition, Baranda, Afro-Portuguese, loopholed stone structures, state formation, complex societies, collapse.

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Chami, F. 1994. The Tanzanian Coast in the First Millennium AD: an archaeology of the iron-working farming communities (with microscopic analyses by Anders Lindahl)

Studies in African Archaeology 7

Doctoral thesis, Department of Archaeology, Uppsala University 1994

ABSTRACT

This thesis deals with the cultural processes which took place on the coast of East Africa in the first millennium AD. The work focuses on the cultural origin of the Triangular Incised Ware (TIW) tradition, its temporal change and spread over the whole coast of East Africa.

The study, based on excavations at six sites, indicates that the central coast was the area of genesis in the 4th-5th centuries AD of this late, widespread tradition. TIW derived from the Early Iron-Working (EIW) communities that originated in the interlacustrine region of East Africa around the 5th century BC.

The florescence of the tradition coincided with evidence of an increased population, improved metal technology and the introduction of foreign trade. Consideration has also been given to the spread of this tradition to the islands, the littoral and the deep hinterland. Similar cultural background and interregional trade could have facilitated the fast spread that took place in the 7th-9th centuries AD. The continuity of this tradition was interrupted by the Islamic-Swahili tradition in the beginning of the 10th century AD.

Key words: coast of East Africa, first millennium AD, early iron working, farming, triangular incised ware, Sassanic-Islamic, trade.

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Chipunza, K. T. A Diachronic Analysis of the Architecture of the Hill Complex at Great Zimbabwe Studies in African Archaeology 8.

MA thesis, Department of Archaeology, Uppsala University 1993

ABSTRACT

This study presents the data on the architectural stratification system of the Hill Complex of Great Zimbabwe in the form of a Harris matrix. The results of the stratigraphic analysis are used to question some of the current interpretations of the development of Great Zimbabwe. A possible relationship between architectural developments and parallel socio-economic events is proposed. The presentation highlights the need for a diachronic analysis of architecture as opposed to a sychronic structuralist interpretation.

Key words: African archaeology, Great Zimbabwe, architecture, chronology, Harris matrix, later farming communities.

Out of print

Swan, L. Early Gold Mining on the Zimbabwean Plateau: changing patterns of gold production in the first and second millennia. Studies in African Archaeology 9.

Fil. Lic.thesis, Department od Archaeology, Uppsala University 1993

ABSTRACT

The gold resources on the Zimbabwean plateau had already been mined on a large scale before the arrival of the settler colony in 1890. The aim of this thesis is to provide a chronological framework for the early history of gold mining in Zimbabwe. However, this is not possible using standard archaeological methods since most archaeological material from the mines was lost in the process of more recent mining. Therefore an alternative approach is used. Fluctuations through time and space in the proximity of archaeological settlements to gold mines are assessed by using settlement distribution analyses.

An intact archaeological deposit at Tebekwe Mine provided a rare opportunity for excavation and direct dating. Evidence for the dating of gold mining and production which has been collected from other sites is reviewed, and compliments the picture established by the distribution analyses.

Key words: Zimbabwe plateau, gold mines, gold production, settlement locations, distribution patterns, distribution analyses, Tebekwe Mine.

Out of print

Walker, N. J., 1995. Late Pleistocene and Holocene Hunter-gatherers of the Matopos: an archaeological study of change and continuity in Zimbabwe. Studies in African Archaeology 10

Doctoral thesis, Department of Archaeology, Uppsala University 1995

ABSTRACT

This study examines the archaeology of the hunter-gatherers of the Matopos in western Zimbabwe from c. 13,000 to 1500 years ago through an investigation of technological, subsistence, settlement, religious and socio-environmental relations. It is based on new excavations at eight sites and a re-examination of assemblages from six previous excavations. The Matopos was in part chosen because of the wealth of environmental data available and initial work aimed at building up a database of ecological data. Subsequent research focussed on spatial, social and symbolic information. Two levels of technological change were identified, one comprising major introductions and the other appreciable shifts in frequencies or form of artefacts. Ten stages have been recognised and these reflect changes in both economic and social strategies as well as in ideology.Key food resources were increasingly exploited in the Matopos, with a wide hunting niche based on small animals and a narrower gathering niche focussed on marula, Sclerocarya birrea. Several adjustments in settlement location, local group size and home range have been observed and these together with the results of the technological and subsistence studies provides the basis of a model of demographic change.

Keywords: Matopos, Zimbabwe, Late Pleistocene, Holocene, Later Stone Age, environment, subsistence, foragers, settlement, technology, population, symbolism, change.

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Jama, A. D. The Origins and Development of Mogadishu AD 1000 to 1850: a study of urban growth along the Benadir coast of southern Somalia. Studies in African Archaeology 12

Fil. Lic. thesis, Department of Archaeology, Uppsala Unversity 1994

ABSTRACT

This study deals with the development of urbanism in southern Somalia. It is based on oral, historical and archaeological sources from AD 1000 to 1850. The relationship between the coast and the interior of the Benadir region and the role of the Shabelle River flood plain in the development of the towns are studied. The importance of the hinterland resources and the maritime trade, in the development of towns in the Benadir region is shown.

Keywords: African archaeology, Somalia, Shabelle River, urbanism, agriculture, trade.

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Pwiti, G. Continuity and Change: an archaeological study of farming communities in northern Zimbabwe AD 500–1700. Studies in African Archaeology 13. Doctoral thesis, Department of Archaeology, Uppsala University 1996.

ABSTRACT

This thesis addresses two main questions about the iron-using farming communities in northern Zimbabwe: when did they become established and how did they develop through space and time? New data is providing showing that farming was practised in northern Zimbabwe by the 5th century AD, earlier than previously thought. During most of the first millennium AD, the farming communities were organised as non-stratified peasant farmers, practising an economy based on cultivation, the rearing of livestock and hunting and gathering. Small stock and cattle were few in number and hunting was very important at the subsistence.
During the early part of the 2nd millennium AD, archaeological evidence for the development of complex socio-cultural organisation exists in northern Zimbabwe as in most of southern Africa around this period. These changes in social and political organisation, are accompanied by changes in settlement organisation as well as in crafts and greater participation in external long distance trade. Changes are seen in material culture, especially ceramic style. The thesis argues that instead of migrations or diffusion, the changes can be accounted for by an examination of the relationship between economy and ideology. It is argued that a shift from an ideology which emphasised equality to one which encouraged accumulation of wealth accounts for the changes observable in the archaeological record of the second millennium AD and the development of chiefdoms in northern Zimbabwe. Chiefdoms are here associated with populations of the Musengezi Tradition who become subjects of the Mutapa state during the late 14th century. The Mutapa was a secondary state, resulting from the northwart expansion of the Great Zimbabwe culture.

The thesis also examines the relationship between landscape and culture through archaeological survey, the application of Geographical Information Systems (GIS) and Site Territorial Analysis (STA). This reveals a relationship between spatial behaviour and sets of environmental attributes such as soil types and vegetation units. Through examination of archaeofaunas and other data, the thesis argues that climatic and environmental change from the period under investigation to the present must have been localised and minimal and it is therfore legitimate to infer the spatial behaviour of the prehistoric populations using observations of the current landscape.

Key words: northern Zimbabwe, Kadzi, Musengezi, Great Zimbabwe Tradition, Mutapa state, complexity, ideology, environment, culture, GIS.

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Cave, Monuments and Texts: Zimbabwean archaeology today. Pwiti, G. (ed.) 1997. Studies in African Archaeology 14. 159 pp., 16 figs, 3 plates.

This book is a collection of eight chapters covering a wide range of topics on Zimbabwean archaeology and cultural heritage management. The chapters range from the Early Stone Age to comtemporary debates on the management of the monumental site of Great Zimbabwe. Each of the chapters provids a historical background to the different aspects that they cover, leading to examination of the current state of the art concerning the sepcific area of research in Zimbabwe. The authors are all leading authorities and active scholars in Zimbabwean archaeology and heritage management.

Keywords: Great Zimbabwe, Stone Age, farming, technology

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Chantal Radimilahy, Mahilaka. An archaeological investigation of an early town in northwestern Madagascar, 1998 . Doctoral dissertation on Mahilaka, northern Madagascar.

Abstract: Investigations and excavations by i.a. Chantal Radimilahy have established a town built with stone with connections across the Indian Ocean to the Comoro Islands and the coast of Eastern Africa. Well preserved walls from houses and mosques as well as city walls and a fort were found beneath a thin layer of sand. The plan of the town shows affinities with other Swahili towns such as Kilwa in Tanzania. The area surrounding the town is well suited to agriculture and fishing. Rich cultural layers contain grains of rice (the oldest find in Madagascar), fish bones, shells and bones from herded cattle. Glass sherds and splinters and beads indicate a production of beads. There is an impressive amount of ceramic sherds with up to six kilograms per square metre and layer. Finds include imported vessels as well as native ones with previously unfamiliar decorations. The oldest layers in Mahilaka date to the tenth century. The picture shows town walls partly excavated.

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Jimmy Jonsson, Early Plant Economy in Zimbabwe. Fil.lic dissertation 1998. 141 pp., 59 tables, 30 figs, 11 plates. ISSN 0284-5040 ISBN 91-506-1321-9.

Abstract:

This work deals with continuity and discontinuity of plant utilisation in the hunter–gatherer and farming communities c. 13,800 BC–AD 1850 in Zimbabwe. The objectives are to discuss the effects of climatic changes and the human impact on vegetation and how the early communities accommodated those changes.

Previous archaeobotanical data show that the hunter–gatherers extended their gathering of primarily woodland species to include grassland and riverine species prior to the introduction of domesticated plants. The first farmers consumed many of the wild plant species, which the hunter–gatherers previously used. Agriculture was presumably spread via small-scale movements of farming communities and trade/exchange between hunter–gatherers and farmers. The new ideas were also spread within existing exchange systems.

New archaeobotanical evidence from the farming communities indicate that dry condition prevailed between c. AD 600 and AD 900. The lower frequency of alluvial deposition along riverbanks led to changes in the agriculture. Local unions, long-distance trade and environmental diversity contributed to stability in the early farming communities. During the wetter and warmer Medieval Warm Epoch, c. AD 900–1300, the farmers cultivated alluvial and waterlogged soils along the riverbanks. Yields also increased in the woodlands and grasslands. Long-distance trade flourished resulting in the introduction of many plant species. Between AD 1300–1850, the Little Ice Age, the climate was drier than previously. The farmers located their fields in different environments. They primarily practised riverine cultivation, since reliance was low on rainfed cultivation. The increased dryness during the Little Ice Age led to increased environmental deterioration around the more densely populated centres.

Keywords: archaeobotany, palaeoethnobotany, archaeology, hunter–gatherers, farmers, climate change, human impact on the environment, agro-ecological zones, wild cereals, trade, Zimbabwe.

OUT OF PRINT.

Jill Kinahan, Cattle for Beads The archaeology of historical contacts and trade on the Namib Coast. Doctoral dissertation, 2000. Studies in African Archaeology 17

ISSN 0284-50040 (Swedish)
ISBN 91-506-1335-9 (Swedish)
ISBN 99916-779-0-9 (Namibian)

ABSTRACT
Early contacts between indigenous pastoralists at Walvis Bay on the Namib Coast and Western seafarers are poorly documented and little understood. Trade augmented regional exchange networks with a range of archaeologically visible and easily identifiable objects. In this thesis I use a parallel classification and seriation of glass beads and imported ceramics to develop relative dating techniques. The sequence identifies three phases of social and economic change. Until the nineteenth century, wealthy pastoralists controlled external trade and the circulation of goods inland. By the mid nineteenth century, British merchants had set up commercial operations at Walvis Bay and the regional network had broken down. Archaeological and documentary evidence agree that by the end of the nineteenth century, indigenous pastoralism at Walvis Bay had collapsed, and the people were dependent upon wage-labour, charity and scavenging. Techniques developed here use trade goods to provide high resolution dating, and other archaeological evidence to shed new light on the indigenous response to contact. These methods may be applicable to similar situations of contact arising from the global spread of Western commerce.

Distributed by The Namibia Archaeological Trust,
P.O. Box 22407
Windhoek
Namibia

Tel./fax: 09+264+61+ 236216
Email: jkinahan@iafrica.com.na

Munyaradzi Manyanga, Choices and Constraints. Animal resource exploitation in South-Eastern Zimbabwe c. AD 900-1500.

Fil.lic. dissertation, 2000.

ABSTRACT

Manyanga, M, 2001. Choices and Constraints: animal resource exploitation in south-eastern Zimbabwe c. ad 900–1500. Studies in African Archaeology 18. Uppsala 133 pp., 38 figs, 25 tables. ISSN 0284-5040, ISBN 91-506-1465-7.

Recent research in south-eastern Zimbabwe shows that the region was occupied in prehistoric times. The hot dry climate, unpredictable variable rainfall patterns and the presence of tsetse fly has always been viewed as a major deterrent to human occupation in the sout-heastern lowveld. Archaeological surveys have revealed evidence of widespread agro-pastoral settlements. While the research area now is perceived as being dry, the Mateke Hills constitute a unique circumscribed environment which promoted human settlements in prehistory. Two Farming Community sites were excavated and these have been dated from the late first millennium ad to the mid second millennium ad. The animal resources from these sites consist of a mixture of hunted and herded animals. A comparison of the species composition from Mwenezi Farm and Malumba has revealed that the ratio of wild animals to domestic animals varies from one site to another in both time and space. The analysis of the faunal and floral data and the archaeological surveys give pointers to what probably happened between the decline of the Mapungubwe state in the middle Limpopo valley and the rise of Great Zimbabwe on the Zimbabwean plateau.

Keywords: South-eastern Zimbabwe, lowveld, Mateke Hills, Mwenezi, Malumba, Great Zimbabwe, Mapungubwe, circumscribed environment, animal resources, species

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Ndoro, W. 2001. Your Monument our Shrine: The preservation of Great Zimbabwe. Studies in African Archaeology 19. Uppsala 130 pp., 43 figs, 15 plates, 9 tables. ISSN 0284-5040, ISBN 91-506-1466-5.

Cultural heritage management in African and in other non-western societies, has mainly been concerned with the preservation and presentation of archaeological monuments primarily from a technical point of view. In Zimbabwe the emphasis has been on the preservation of spectacular monumental architectural places like Great Zimbabwe. Most efforts to preserve and present the archaeological heritage in Southern Africa suffer from a failure to fully understand the significance of the cultural heritage and its value to local communities. Following independence, many Southern African nations realised the value of the past in nation building and the need to restore cultural pride, which had seriously been eroded by colonialism. However, local community interests are often ignored at the expense of international guidelines and frames of operation. Despite the attainment of independence heritage management in Southern Africa assume that local communities are irrelevant to a ‘scientific’ approach of managing their own heritage.

This thesis explores traditional ways of heritage management. They are discussed in relations of the various experiences at the Great Zimbabwe National Monument. The architectural conservation programmes implemented at Great Zimbabwe are outlined and reviewed in the context of archaeological heritage managers in Southern Africa. The thesis emphasizes the need for integrative planning and management structures that promotes a rapprochement between scientific and local knowledge structures. This provides the best chance of avoiding irreversible cultural degradation resulting from arbitrary decisions of management and policy makers.

Key words Archaeological- and cultural heritage management; preservation and presentation; cultural landscape; Great Zimbabwe; national shrines; cultural significances; local and indigenous knowledge; cultural values; access to the heritage.

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Fortcoming volumes in the series 2002/3

Solange Macamo will publish her fil.lic. dissertation using results from her excavations in Northern Mozambique.

Abdurahman Juma will publish his doctoral dissertation using results from his excavations on Uguija Ukuu, Zanzibar. Finds include late Roman pottery (see Antiquity vol 70, 148-154)

Leonardo Adamowicz will publish his doctoral dissertation with results from his excavations in Nampula, Northern Mozambique.

Geoff Blundell will publish his doctoral dissertation on South African Rock Art.

Please check out the new series, Studies in Global Archaeology

OTHER VOLUMES OF INTEREST

Sinclair, P. J. J. 1987. Space,Time and Social formation: a territorial approach to the archaeology and anthropology of Zimbabwe and Mozambique c. 0-1700 AD. (AUN 9) Doctoral dissertation

ABSTRACT

This study aims at analyzing within a broadly formulated concept of social formation, the set of spatial relationships which characterize the farming communities and state formations of Zimbabwe and Mozambique c. 0-1700 AD. Before independence in 1975 Mozambican archaeology was underdeveloped in relation to Zimbabwe and the present dissertation is part of a joint effort to correct this imbalance. Priority problem areas are: to establish a primary chronostratigraphic framework, to reassess existing data on the establishment of the early farming communities, and to analyse processes of state formation from an holistic perspective. Eight intra-site case studies from the Zimbabwe plateau and the Mozambican coastal plain provide examples of methodological problems in sampling, excavation, context definition, comparison of finds using correspondence analysis, computer simulation and possible resource utilization strategies using site catchment analysis. At the intersite level, locational data from different periods is analyzed both in terms of relative site densities and by using fuzzy set cluster analysis. Processes of state formation are considered in relation to archaeological and anthropological evidence for spatial continuity and change and a testible model for the occurrence of clusters of Zimbabwe stone wall enclosures is suggested. Finally, an attempt is made to draw general conclusions on the differential contribution at different scales, of socio-cultural, ecomonic, political and environmental factors in accounting for material culture distributions.

Keywords:
Archaeology, Anthropology, Zimbabwe, Mozambique, Site Catchment Analysis, Computer simulation, Correspondence Analysis, Relative Site Densities, Fuzzy Set Cluster Analysis, Scale, Farming Communities, State Formation.

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A number of project working papers have also been published, e.g.
Proceedings of the 1991 Workshop in Zanzibar
Proceedings of the 1989 Workshop in Madagascar
These volumes contain a number of papers generated from the workshops held under the auspices of the Urban Origins project.

Publications from African and Comparative Archaeology: Studies in African Archaeology